Cellular and Molecular Biology

Chapter 16 Worksheet/Quiz – Due by Exam 5 Worth 5 pts of a normal “quiz” Why are sensory receptors called transducers? Sensory receptors convert stimulus energy to electrical energy. Would you be able to pinpoint the exact location of an ant crawling on your skin if the area was covered by large receptive ﬁeld? Yes or No Deﬁne the term sensation: a stimulus we are consciously aware of Sensory Receptors can be classiﬁed by where they get their sensory information. What receptors detect stimuli from our internal environment? interoceptors What receptors detect stimuli from our external environment? exteroceptors What receptors detect stimuli within our muscles, joints and tendons? proprioceptors Yes/No Questions No Would you ﬁnd an interoceptor on your skin? Yes Would you ﬁnd a proprioceptor in your joint? Yes Would you ﬁnd an exteroceptors on your scalp? Describe your favorite un -encapsulated tactile receptor. Include its general structure, location, function, and whether it is phasic or tonic. My favorite un-encapsulated tactile receptor would be a free nerve ending, because it detects temperature, pain, and some detect light touch and pressure. It has terminal endings of sensory neurons, and is closes to the skin surface within mucous membranes. It can be either phasic or tonic. Describe your favorite encapsulated tactile receptor. Include its general structure, location, function, and whether it is phasic or tonic. My favorite encapsulated tactile receptor would be lamellated corpuscles, because it functions in coard touch and detects continuous deep pressure and high-frequency vibration. It has terminal endings of sensory neurons ensheathed with an inner core of neurolemmocytes and outer concentric layers of connective tissue. It is located in the reticular layer of the dermis, the hypodermis of the palms of the hands, soles of the feet, breasts, and external genitalia. It is phasic. Identify whether the following attributes are associated with a chemoreceptor (C), Thermoreceptor (T), Photoreceptor (P), Mechanoreceptor (M), or Nociceptor (N) Photoreceptor Detects changes in light intensity Thermoreceptor Responds to a drop in temperature Mechanoreceptor Baroreceptors in blood vessels Chemoreceptor Detects ion concentrations in ﬂuid Mechanoreceptor Responds to a stretching of the plasma membrane Nociceptor Responds to pain Thermoreceptor Responds to an increase in temperature Chemoreceptor Taste Receptors Photoreceptor Detects movement Nociceptor Responds when we touch a hot stove Mechanoreceptor Proprioceptors Chemoreceptor Detects carbon dioxide in blood Thermoreceptor Is located in the Skin & Hypothalamus Photoreceptor Detects color Chemoreceptor Detects glucose in the food we eat Mechanoreceptor Detects changes in blood pressure Nociceptor Detects Visceral Pain Thermoreceptor Involved in body temperature homeostasis Nociceptor Tactile Receptors Taste & Smell  Section 16.3 in book, Crash Course A&P #16

BIOL | 168 | Cellular and Molecular Biology | assessment | Chapter 16 Worksheet/Quiz – Du

Chapter 13 Match the adult brain component to the embryonic development component it arises from D Cerebellum A Cerebrum B Epithalamus B Hypothalamus E Medullla oblongata C Midbrain D Pons B Thalamus A) Telencephalon B) Diencephalon C) Mesencephalon D) Metencephalon E) Myelencephalon The Reticular Formation is a functional brain system that has a motor component and a sensory component called the Reticular Activating System (RAS). The motor component helps regulate muscle tone via spinal cord connections, respiration, blood pressure and heart rate . The RAS processes visual , auditory , and touch stimuli to keep us in a mentally alert state. Consciousness is an awareness of sensation, voluntary control of motor activities as well as higher mental processes. Describe alertness: Highest state of consciousness, the individual is responsive, aware of self, and well-oriented o person, place, and time. What are the three types of memory? 1) Sensory Memory: when we form important associations based on sensory input from the environment 2) Short-Term Memory: characterized by limited capacity and brief duration 3) Long-Term Memory: exists for limitless periods of time Assign each following example to one of the three types of memories: Sensory You walk by a coﬀee-shop and smell the coﬀee aroma. STM You read this sentence. STM You meet Adam Sandler in Hawaii and spend the day together. LTM You dial your parent’s home phone number. In your own words, describe the Figure 13.30 (Model of Information Processing) and how the types of memory ﬁt together. Various sights, sounds, and smells are processed as sensory memory, most of which will be forgotten. Whatever we deem important enough will be delivered to STM. We must practice or think about this information (continually activating those neural circuits) to process, or encode, it as LTM. We need our hippocampus and amygdaloid body (both part of the limbic system) to do this. Afterward, we can retrieve the information at undetermined times in the future. Deﬁne encoding: conversion from STM to LTM – aka memory consolidation What brain structures are required for encoding? Amygdaloid body and hippocampus Where is long term memory stored? Usually in the corresponding association area Deﬁne the following: Tract: axons grouped into bundles in the CNS, areas of white matter Corpus Collosum: the largest of the white matter tracts and connects the hemispheres Homunculus: a representative map of either the motor cortex or somatosensory cortex Match the brain function to the correct lobe of the cerebrum A Motor Speech Area (Regulates breathing patterns and muscle movements for speech)

BIOL | 168 | Cellular and Molecular Biology | assessment | Chapter 13 Match the adult bra

Chapter 13 Quiz List the ﬁve developmental regions of the brain and identify the major areas of the adult brain that arise from each region (Slide 1) 1) Telencephalon (cerebrum) 2) Diencephalon (epithalamus, thalamus, hypothalamus) 3) Mesencephalon (midbrain) 4) Metencephalon (pons, cerebellum) 5) Myelenocephalon (medulla oblongata) Correlate functions with each major area of the adult brain (Cerebrum, Diencephalon, Brain Stem, Cerebellum) 1) Cerebrum: consciousness, thought & higher-ordered thinking, memory, sensory perception, controls voluntary movement 2) Diencephalon: relay center for some sensory and motor pathways, controls visceral activities. MAJOR COMPONENTS: thalamus, epithalamus (made up on habenular nucleus, pineal gland), hypothalamus 3) Brain stem: connects brain and spinal cord, controls breathing, heart rate, and other basic life functions 4) Cerebellum: ﬁne-tunes motor functions, stores muscle memory Describe the orientation of the brain relative to bones of the skull Frontal lobe -> frontal bone Parietal lobes -> parietal bones etc Describe the diﬀerence between gray matter and white matter Grey matter: is made of neuron cell bodies, dendtries, and unmyelinated axons White matter: consists of myelinated axons Diﬀerentiate between cerebral cortex and cerebral nuclei Cerebral Cortex: grey matter surface of cerebrum Cerebral Nuclei: are regions of grey matter (clusters of cell bodies) found deep in the cerebrum Describe cerebral lateralization and the structure and signiﬁcance of the corpus collosum Cerebral lateralization: each side is specialized for diﬀerent areas Corpus callousum: largest of the white matter tracts and connects the hemispheres. Provides the main method of communication between the two hemispheres. Deﬁne cerebral hemispheres Left hemisphere (categorical hemisphere): verbal memory, speech, right hand motor control, superior language and mathematical comprehension Right hemisphere (representational hemisphere): memory for shapes, left hand motor control, musical ability, recognition of faces and spatial relationships Name the 5 lobes of the cerebrum and brieﬂy describe their functions Frontal lobe: contains the precentral gyrus, voluntary motor functions, concentration, verbal communication, decision making, planning, personality Parietal lobe: contains postcentral gyrus, processes all incoming sensory information Temporal Lobe: hearing and smell Occipital lobe: vision Insula: memory and interpretation of taste Describe the location and function of the precentral and postcentral gyrus Precentral Gyrus: located in frontal lobe, houses primary motor cortex, controls voluntary skeletal muscle Postcentral Gyrus: located in parietal lobes, houses primary somatosensory cortex, receives stimuli from skin and joints Deﬁne Homunculi and describe why the depicted body parts look out of proportion Homunculi: maps of the motor and sensory cortexes SLIDE 15, FIGURE 13.13, PAGE 502 They look out of proportion because of the nerve distributions (hand uses a larger area than the trunk) Hands have smaller motor units, therefore they need a lot of neurons to control those units. Name the components of the limbic system and list their functions Limbic system: the “emotional brain” 1) Cingulate Gyrus: receives input from other areas of the limbic system 2) Hippocampus: involved in long term memory formation 3) Parahippocampal Gyrus: functions associated with hippocampus 4) Amygdaloid Body: emotional memory, primarily fear and anxiety 5) Fornix: white matter that connect the hippocampus to other brain areas 6) Anterior Thalamic Nucleus: involved in memory 7) Mammillary Body: memory recall Discuss the function of the Reticular Activating System Processes visual, auditory, and touch stimuli to activate consciousness, is the body’s “alarm clock” Compare and contrast short-term and long term memory Short-Term Memory needs the hippocampus and lasts seconds to hours. Long-Term Memory needs the amygdaloid body and hippocampus and is stored in association areas of the cerebral cortex. Describe how sensory, short-term and long-term memory are inter-related Sensory memory occurs when we form important associated based on sensory input from the environment (sights, sounds, smells, etc). STM follows sensory memory and is generally characterized by a limited capacity and brief duration. LTM occurs when STM is adequately repeated and assessed, and may exist for limitless periods of time.

BIOL | 168 | Cellular and Molecular Biology | assessment | Chapter 13 Quiz List the ﬁve d

Chapter 16 - Vision what structures make up the ﬁbrous tunic, vascular tunic and Retina? Fibrous Tunic: sclera, cornea Vascular Tunic: iris, ciliary body, choroid Retina: pigmented layer, neural layer Describe the basic functions of the following structures of the eyes (Worksheet to follow)  Eyebrows: non-verbal communication; prevent sweat from getting in eyes  Eyelashes: prevent objects coming into eye; can initiate blink reﬂex  Sebaceous Glands: secrete oily substance for eye protection  Conjunctiva: transparent lining (specialized stratiﬁed columnar epithelium) that contains goblet cells to moisten eye, blood vessels nourish sclera (the white part), has abundant nerve endings, does NOT cover the cornea  Lacrimal Apparatus: produces, collects, drains ﬂuids  Lacrimal Fluid: water, Na+, antibodies, lysozyme (antibacterial enzyme) – lubricates, cleanses, and moistens eye, reduces eyelid friction, defends against microbes, oxygenates and nourishes cornea  Sclera: provides eye shape, protects internal components, is the attachment site for eye muscles  Cornea: refracts light  Choroid: nourish retina, makes melanin to absorb extraneous light  Ciliary Muscles: contract or relax to change lens shape  Ciliary Processes: secretes aqueous humor  Iris: melanocytes provide color  Pupil: allows light to enter eye  Sphincter & Dilator pupillae muscles: sphincter pupillae constricts in a circular pattern thus closing the pupil, dilator pupillae contracts outward thus opening (dilating) the pupil  Pigmented Layer of Retina: provides vitamin A and retinal regeneration for rods and cones  Neural Layer of Retina: transduce light energy into electrical energy and transmit the signal to the brain  Photoreceptor Cell: rod or cone cell that contains light reactive pigments  Bipolar Cell: receive synaptic signals from photoreceptor cells and pass signal to ganglion cells  Ganglion Cell: synapses with bipolar cell and transmits signal upon its axon (optic nerve) to the brain  Optic Disc: allows optic nerve to travel to the brain  Lens: changes shape to focus light on retina  Suspensory Ligaments: holds the lens in place  Vitreous Humor: ﬁlls posterior cavity and maintains overall shape and keeps retina ﬂush against back of eye  Aqueous Humor: secreted by ciliary processes, nourishes and oxygenates lens and inner cornea

BIOL | 168 | Cellular and Molecular Biology | assessment | Chapter 16 - Vision what struc

Compare and contrast the anatomy of the sympathetic and parasympathetic division Sympathetic: mass activation (the ﬁre alarm goes oﬀ, start panicking, adrenaline, activate entire body to ﬂee) - Preganglionic neurons are short and branched, myelinated, function for homeostasis - Postganglionic neurons are long, unmyelinated Parasympathetic: localized responses (when you have to pee only your bladder knows about it) - Preganglionic neurons are long with few branches, myelinated, function for homeostasis - Postganglionic neurons are short, unmyelinated Name the four cranial nerves associated with the parasympathetic system and describe their basic functions 1) Ocularmotor (CN III): controls ciliary muscles (lens shape), controls iris sphincter muscle (pupil size) 2) Facial Nerve (CN VII): controls lacrimal glands (tears) & other facial glands, controls salivary glands 3) Glossopharnygeal (CN IX): controls parotid salivary gland 4) Vagus Nerve (CN X)(wandering nerve): slows heart rate, constricts lung bronchioles, increases digestive secretions, stores carbohydrates, basically it innervates the thoracic organs and most of the abdominal organs List 5 organs innervated by the parasympathetic neurons of the vagus nerve 1) Heart 2) Ovaries/Testes 3) Lungs 4) Stomach 5) Intestines Discuss brieﬂy the roles of the vagus nerve in the heart and the digestive system - Parasympathetic Response slows heart rate through the inhibition by M2 muscarinic receptor (NEUROTRANSMITTER IS ACH). This causes IPSP (hyperpolarization) and inhibition slowing resting heart rate from ~100 BPM to ~60- 80 BPM. - Parasympathetic response produces sensations of hunger, fullness, and satisfaction, emptying of stomach contents into the small intestine, relaxation of the stomach to prepare for entry of food, “rest & digest.” Impairment of the vagus nerve may be one cause of gastroparesis. Describe the ratio of spinal nerve to sympathetic ganglion and identify where they are diﬀerent than the “general rule” Generally there is one ganglion associated with each spinal nerve, HOWEVER the cervical portion has only three ganglia total. - Superior cervical ganglion: targets sweat glands, blood vessels, dilator pupillae muscle of eye, superior tarsal muscle of eyelid - Middle and inferior cervical ganglion: have postganglionic axons that innervate thoracic viscera. Compare and contrast white and gray communicantes in structure and function White Rami Communicantes: carry myelinated preganglionic sympathetic axons from T1-L2 nerves to trunk, serve as “entrance ramps” to trunk Grey Rami Communicantes: carry unmyelinated postganglionic sympathetic axons from trunk to all spinal nerves, serve as “exit ramps” from trunk List and describe the 4 nerve pathways of the sympathetic division VIEW TABLE 15.3 ON PAGE 589!  Where is the preganglionic neuron?  Same level or moves up and down levels?  Where is the synapse with the postganglion?  What is usually innervated for that pathway? 1) Spinal Nerve Pathway - Preganglionic neuron is located in the spinal cord. - Axon can move up and down levels before synapsing. - Synapse occurs in a sympathetic trunk ganglion, and the postganglionic neuron extends through a grey ramus at the same level of the ganglion. - Typically innervates skin eﬀectors of neck, torso, and limbs (sweat glands). 2) Postganglionic Sympathetic Nerve Pathway - Preganglionic neuron is located in the spinal cord. - Does not move levels. - Synapse occurs in a sympathetic trunk ganglion, but the postganglionic neuron projects directly to the eﬀector organ. - Typically innervates internal organs of the thoracic cavity (heart, lungs, esophagic, etc.), skin eﬀectors of head and neck, neck viscera, and superior tarsal and dilator pupillae muscles. 3) Splanchnic Nerve Pathway - Preganglionic neuron is located in spinal cord. - Does not move levels. - Synapse does not occur in sympathetic trunk, but instead in prevertebral ganglia. The postganglionic neurons directly project to eﬀector organs. - Typically innervates abdominal and pelvic organs (stomach, spleen, kidneys, small intestines) 4) Adrenal Medulla Pathway - Preganglionic neuron is located in spinal cord. - Does not move levels. - Axons extend through the sympathetic trunk and prevertebral ganglia and then synapse on neurosecretory cells within the adrenal medulla. - Stimulation of these cells causes the release of epinephrine and norepinephrine into the blood. These hormones transport through the blood and bind to the same receptors as NE neurotransmitters, which prolongs the eﬀects of

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