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Modern Operating Systems by Herbert Bos and Andrew S. Tanenb...
Modern_Operating_Systems_by_Herbert_Bos_and_Andrew_S._Tanenbaum_4th_Ed.pdf
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Modern Operating Systems by Herbert Bos and Andrew...
Modern_Operating_Systems_by_Herbert_Bos_and_Andrew_S._Tanenbaum_4th_Ed.pdf-M ODERN O PERATING S YSTEMS
Modern Operating Systems by Herbert...
Modern_Operating_Systems_by_Herbert_Bos_and_Andrew_S._Tanenbaum_4th_Ed.pdf-M ODERN O PERATING S YSTEMS
Page 36
SEC. 1.1
WHAT IS AN OPERATING SYSTEM?
5
Operating system
Hardware
Ugly interface
Beautiful interface
Application programs
Figure 1-2.
Operating systems turn ugly hardware into beautiful abstractions.
It should be noted that the operating system’s real customers are the applica-
tion programs (via the application programmers, of course).
They are the ones
who deal directly with the operating system and its abstractions.
In contrast, end
users deal with the abstractions provided by the user interface, either a com-
mand-line shell or a graphical interface. While the abstractions at the user interface
may be similar to the ones provided by the operating system, this is not always the
case. To make this point clearer, consider the normal Windows desktop and the
line-oriented command prompt. Both are programs running on the Windows oper-
ating system and use the abstractions Windows provides, but they offer very dif-
ferent user interfaces. Similarly, a Linux user running Gnome or KDE sees a very
different interface than a Linux user working directly on top of the underlying X
Window System, but the underlying operating system abstractions are the same in
both cases.
In this book, we will study the abstractions provided to application programs in
great detail, but say rather little about user interfaces. That is a large and important
subject, but one only peripherally related to operating systems.
1.1.2 The Operating System as a Resource Manager
The concept of an operating system as primarily providing abstractions to ap-
plication programs is a top-down view. An alternative, bottom-up, view holds that
the operating system is there to manage all the pieces of a complex system. Mod-
ern computers consist of processors, memories, timers, disks, mice, network inter-
faces, printers, and a wide variety of other devices. In the bottom-up view, the job
of the operating system is to provide for an orderly and controlled allocation of the
processors, memories, and I/O devices among the various programs wanting them.
Modern operating systems allow multiple programs to be in memory and run
at the same time. Imagine what would happen if three programs running on some
computer all tried to print their output simultaneously on the same printer. The first
Page 37
6
INTRODUCTION
CHAP. 1
few lines of printout might be from program 1, the next few from program 2, then
some from program 3, and so forth. The result would be utter chaos.
The operating
system can bring order to the potential chaos by buffering all the output destined
for the printer on the disk. When one program is finished, the operating system can
then copy its output from the disk file where it has been stored for the printer,
while at the same time the other program can continue generating more output,
oblivious to the fact that the output is not really going to the printer (yet).
When a computer (or network) has more than one user, the need for managing
and protecting the memory, I/O devices, and other resources is even more since the
users might otherwise interfere with one another.
In addition, users often need to
share not only hardware, but information (files, databases, etc.) as well.
In short,
this view of the operating system holds that its primary task is to keep track of
which programs are using which resource, to grant resource requests, to account
for usage, and to mediate conflicting requests from different programs and users.
Resource management includes
multiplexing
(sharing) resources in two dif-
ferent ways: in time and in space. When a resource is time multiplexed, different
programs or users take turns using it. First one of them gets to use the resource,
then another, and so on.
For example, with only one CPU and multiple programs
that want to run on it, the operating system first allocates the CPU to one program,
then, after it has run long enough, another program gets to use the CPU, then an-
other, and then eventually the first one again. Determining how the resource is time
multiplexed—who goes next and for how long—is the task of the operating sys-
tem. Another example of time multiplexing is sharing the printer.
When multiple
print jobs are queued up for printing on a single printer, a decision has to be made
about which one is to be printed next.
The other kind of multiplexing is space multiplexing. Instead of the customers
taking turns, each one gets part of the resource.
For example, main memory is nor-
mally divided up among several running programs, so each one can be resident at
the same time (for example, in order to take turns using the CPU).
Assuming there
is enough memory to hold multiple programs, it is more efficient to hold several
programs in memory at once rather than give one of them all of it, especially if it
only needs a small fraction of the total.
Of course, this raises issues of fairness,
protection, and so on, and it is up to the operating system to solve them. Another
resource that is space multiplexed is the disk.
In many systems a single disk can
hold files from many users at the same time. Allocating disk space and keeping
track of who is using which disk blocks is a typical operating system task.
1.2 HISTORY OF OPERATING SYSTEMS
Operating systems have been evolving through the years.
In the following sec-
tions we will briefly look at a few of the highlights.
Since operating systems have
historically been closely tied to the architecture of the computers on which they
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