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Modern Operating Systems by Herbert Bos and Andrew S. Tanenb...
Modern_Operating_Systems_by_Herbert_Bos_and_Andrew_S._Tanenbaum_4th_Ed.pdf
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Modern Operating Systems by Herbert Bos and Andrew...
Modern_Operating_Systems_by_Herbert_Bos_and_Andrew_S._Tanenbaum_4th_Ed.pdf-M ODERN O PERATING S YSTEMS
Modern Operating Systems by Herbert...
Modern_Operating_Systems_by_Herbert_Bos_and_Andrew_S._Tanenbaum_4th_Ed.pdf-M ODERN O PERATING S YSTEMS
Page 413
382
INPUT/OUTPUT
CHAP. 5
space is available in the controller’s cache memory. The hard disk described in Fig.
5-18 has a 4-MB cache, for example. The use of the cache is determined dynam-
ically by the controller. In its simplest mode, the cache is divided into two sections,
one for reads and one for writes.
If a subsequent read can be satisfied out of the
controller’s cache, it can return the requested data immediately.
It is worth noting that the disk controller’s cache is completely independent of
the operating system’s cache. The controller’s cache usually holds blocks that have
not actually been requested, but which were convenient to read because they just
happened to pass under the head as a side effect of some other read.
In contrast,
any cache maintained by the operating system will consist of blocks that were ex-
plicitly read and which the operating system thinks might be needed again in the
near future (e.g., a disk block holding a directory block).
When several drives are present on the same controller, the operating system
should maintain a pending request table for each drive separately. Whenever any
drive is idle, a seek should be issued to move its arm to the cylinder where it will
be needed next (assuming the controller allows overlapped seeks). When the cur-
rent transfer finishes, a check can be made to see if any drives are positioned on the
correct cylinder. If one or more are, the next transfer can be started on a drive that
is already on the right cylinder. If none of the arms is in the right place, the driver
should issue a new seek on the drive that just completed a transfer and wait until
the next interrupt to see which arm gets to its destination first.
It is important to realize that all of the above disk-scheduling algorithms tacitly
assume that the real disk geometry is the same as the virtual geometry.
If it is not,
then scheduling disk requests makes no sense because the operating system cannot
really tell whether cylinder 40 or cylinder 200 is closer to cylinder 39.
On the
other hand, if the disk controller can accept multiple outstanding requests, it can
use these scheduling algorithms internally.
In that case, the algorithms are still
valid, but one level down, inside the controller.
5.4.4 Error Handling
Disk manufacturers are constantly pushing the limits of the technology by
increasing linear bit densities.
A track midway out on a 5.25-inch disk has a cir-
cumference of about 300 mm.
If the track holds 300 sectors of 512 bytes, the lin-
ear recording density may be about 5000 bits/mm taking into account the fact that
some space is lost to preambles, ECCs, and intersector gaps. Recording 5000
bits/mm requires an extremely uniform substrate and a very fine oxide coating. Un-
fortunately, it is not possible to manufacture a disk to such specifications without
defects. As soon as manufacturing technology has improved to the point where it
is possible to operate flawlessly at such densities, disk designers will go to higher
densities to increase the capacity. Doing so will probably reintroduce defects.
Manufacturing defects introduce bad sectors, that is, sectors that do not cor-
rectly read back the value just written to them.
If the defect is very small, say, only
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