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Modern Operating Systems by Herbert Bos and Andrew S. Tanenb...
Modern_Operating_Systems_by_Herbert_Bos_and_Andrew_S._Tanenbaum_4th_Ed.pdf
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Modern Operating Systems by Herbert Bos and Andrew...
Modern_Operating_Systems_by_Herbert_Bos_and_Andrew_S._Tanenbaum_4th_Ed.pdf-M ODERN O PERATING S YSTEMS
Modern Operating Systems by Herbert...
Modern_Operating_Systems_by_Herbert_Bos_and_Andrew_S._Tanenbaum_4th_Ed.pdf-M ODERN O PERATING S YSTEMS
Page 384
SEC. 5.2
PRINCIPLES OF I/O SOFTWARE
353
String to
be printed
User
space
Kernel
space
ABCD
EFGH
Printed
page
(a)
ABCD
EFGH
ABCD
EFGH
Printed
page
(b)
A
Next
(c)
AB
Next
Figure 5-7.
Steps in printing a string.
The user process then acquires the printer for writing by making a system call
to open it.
If the printer is currently in use by another process, this call will fail
and return an error code or will block until the printer is available, depending on
the operating system and the parameters of the call. Once it has the printer, the user
process makes a system call telling the operating system to print the string on the
printer.
The operating system then (usually) copies the buffer with the string to an
array, say,
p
, in kernel space, where it is more easily accessed (because the kernel
may have to change the memory map to get at user space).
It then checks to see if
the printer is currently available. If not, it waits until it is.
As soon as the printer is
available, the operating system copies the first character to the printer’s data regis-
ter, in this example using memory-mapped I/O.
This action activates the printer.
The character may not appear yet because some printers buffer a line or a page be-
fore printing anything. In Fig. 5-7(b), however, we see that the first character has
been printed and that the system has marked the ‘‘B’’ as the next character to be
printed.
As soon as it has copied the first character to the printer, the operating system
checks to see if the printer is ready to accept another one. Generally, the printer has
a second register, which gives its status.
The act of writing to the data register
causes the status to become not ready. When the printer controller has processed
the current character, it indicates its availability by setting some bit in its status reg-
ister or putting some value in it.
At this point the operating system waits for the printer to become ready again.
When that happens, it prints the next character, as shown in Fig. 5-7(c). This loop
continues until the entire string has been printed. Then control returns to the user
process.
The actions followed by the operating system are briefly summarized in
Fig. 5-8.
First the data are copied to the kernel. Then the operating system enters a
Page 385
354
INPUT/OUTPUT
CHAP. 5
tight loop, outputting the characters one at a time. The essential aspect of program-
med I/O, clearly illustrated in this figure, is that after outputting a character, the
CPU continuously polls the device to see if it is ready to accept another one. This
behavior is often called
polling
or
busy waiting
.
copy
from
user(buffer, p, count);
/
*
p is the kernel buffer
*
/
for (i = 0; i < count; i++) {
/
*
loop on every character
*
/
while (
*
printer
status
reg != READY) ;
/
*
loop until ready
*
/
*
printer
data
register = p[i];
/
*
output one character
*
/
}
return
to
user( );
Figure 5-8.
Writing a string to the printer using programmed I/O.
Programmed I/O is simple but has the disadvantage of tying up the CPU full time
until all the I/O is done.
If the time to ‘‘print’’ a character is very short (because all
the printer is doing is copying the new character to an internal buffer), then busy
waiting is fine. Also, in an embedded system, where the CPU has nothing else to
do, busy waiting is fine. However, in more complex systems, where the CPU has
other work to do, busy waiting is inefficient. A better I/O method is needed.
5.2.3 Interrupt-Driven I/O
Now let us consider the case of printing on a printer that does not buffer char-
acters but prints each one as it arrives. If the printer can print, say 100 charac-
ters/sec, each character takes 10 msec to print. This means that after every charac-
ter is written to the printer’s data register, the CPU will sit in an idle loop for 10
msec waiting to be allowed to output the next character. This is more than enough
time to do a context switch and run some other process for the 10 msec that would
otherwise be wasted.
The way to allow the CPU to do something else while waiting for the printer to
become ready is to use interrupts. When the system call to print the string is made,
the buffer is copied to kernel space, as we showed earlier, and the first character is
copied to the printer as soon as it is willing to accept a character.
At that point the
CPU calls the scheduler and some other process is run.
The process that asked for
the string to be printed is blocked until the entire string has printed. The work done
on the system call is shown in Fig. 5-9(a).
When the printer has printed the character and is prepared to accept the next
one, it generates an interrupt. This interrupt stops the current process and saves its
state. Then the printer interrupt-service procedure is run.
A crude version of this
code is shown in Fig. 5-9(b). If there are no more characters to print, the interrupt
handler takes some action to unblock the user. Otherwise, it outputs the next char-
acter, acknowledges the interrupt, and returns to the process that was running just
before the interrupt, which continues from where it left off.
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