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Modern Operating Systems by Herbert Bos and Andrew S. Tanenb...
Modern_Operating_Systems_by_Herbert_Bos_and_Andrew_S._Tanenbaum_4th_Ed.pdf
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Modern Operating Systems by Herbert Bos and Andrew...
Modern_Operating_Systems_by_Herbert_Bos_and_Andrew_S._Tanenbaum_4th_Ed.pdf-M ODERN O PERATING S YSTEMS
Modern Operating Systems by Herbert...
Modern_Operating_Systems_by_Herbert_Bos_and_Andrew_S._Tanenbaum_4th_Ed.pdf-M ODERN O PERATING S YSTEMS
Page 63
32
INTRODUCTION
CHAP. 1
1.3.5 Buses
The organization of Fig. 1-6 was used on minicomputers for years and also on
the original IBM PC.
However, as processors and memories got faster, the ability
of a single bus (and certainly the IBM PC bus) to handle all the traffic was strained
to the breaking point. Something had to give.
As a result, additional buses were
added, both for faster I/O devices and for CPU-to-memory traffic. As a conse-
quence of this evolution, a large x86 system currently looks something like
Fig. 1-12.
Memory controllers
DDR3 Memory
Graphics
PCIe
Platform
Controller
Hub
DMI
PCIe slot
PCIe slot
PCIe slot
PCIe slot
Core1
Core2
Shared cache
GPU Cores
DDR3 Memory
SATA
USB 2.0 ports
USB 3.0 ports
Gigabit Ethernet
Cache
Cache
More PCIe devices
PCIe
Figure 1-12.
The structure of a large x86 system.
This system has many buses (e.g., cache, memory, PCIe, PCI, USB, SATA, and
DMI), each with a different transfer rate and function. The operating system must
be aware of all of them for configuration and management. The main bus is the
PCIe
(
Peripheral Component Interconnect Express
) bus.
The PCIe bus was invented by Intel as a successor to the older
PCI
bus, which
in turn was a replacement for the original
ISA
(
Industry Standard Architecture
)
bus. Capable of transferring tens of gigabits per second, PCIe is much faster than
its predecessors. It is also very different in nature. Up to its creation in 2004, most
buses were parallel and shared. A
shared bus architecture
means that multiple de-
vices use the same wires to transfer data.
Thus, when multiple devices have data to
send, you need an arbiter to determine who can use the bus. In contrast, PCIe
makes use of dedicated, point-to-point connections. A
parallel bus architecture
as
used in traditional PCI means that you send each word of data over multiple wires.
For instance, in regular PCI buses, a single 32-bit number is sent over 32 parallel
wires. In contrast to this, PCIe uses a
serial bus architecture
and sends all bits in
Page 64
SEC. 1.3
COMPUTER HARDWARE REVIEW
33
a message through a single connection, known as a lane, much like a network
packet. This is much simpler, because you do not have to ensure that all 32 bits
arrive at the destination at exactly the same time.
Parallelism is still used, because
you can have multiple lanes in parallel. For instance, we may use 32 lanes to carry
32 messages in parallel.
As the speed of peripheral devices like network cards and
graphics adapters increases rapidly, the PCIe standard is upgraded every 3–5 years.
For instance, 16 lanes of PCIe 2.0 offer 64 gigabits per second.
Upgrading to PCIe
3.0 will give you twice that speed and PCIe 4.0 will double that again.
Meanwhile, we still have many legacy devices for the older PCI standard. As
we see in Fig. 1-12, these devices are hooked up to a separate hub processor.
In
the future, when we consider PCI no longer merely
old
, but
ancient
, it is possible
that all PCI devices will attach to yet another hub that in turn connects them to the
main hub, creating a tree of buses.
In this configuration, the CPU talks to memory over a fast DDR3 bus, to an ex-
ternal graphics device over PCIe and to all other devices via a hub over a
DMI
(
Direct Media Interface
) bus. The hub in turn connects all the other devices,
using the Universal Serial Bus to talk to USB devices, the SATA bus to interact
with hard disks and DVD drives, and PCIe to transfer Ethernet frames. We have al-
ready mentioned the older PCI devices that use a traditional PCI bus.
Moreover, each of the cores has a dedicated cache and a much larger cache that
is shared between them. Each of these caches introduces another bus.
The
USB
(
Universal Serial Bus
) was invented to attach all the slow I/O de-
vices, such as the keyboard and mouse, to the computer. However, calling a mod-
ern USB 3.0 device humming along at 5 Gbps ‘‘slow’’ may not come naturally for
the generation that grew up with 8-Mbps ISA as the main bus in the first IBM PCs.
USB uses a small connector with four to eleven wires (depending on the version),
some of which supply electrical power to the USB devices or connect to ground.
USB is a centralized bus in which a root device polls all the I/O devices every 1
msec to see if they have any traffic. USB 1.0 could handle an aggregate load of 12
Mbps, USB 2.0 increased the speed to 480 Mbps, and USB 3.0 tops at no less than
5 Gbps. Any USB device can be connected to a computer and it will function im-
mediately, without requiring a reboot, something pre-USB devices required, much
to the consternation of a generation of frustrated users.
The
SCSI
(
Small Computer System Interface
) bus is a high-performance bus
intended for fast disks, scanners, and other devices needing considerable band-
width. Nowadays, we find them mostly in servers and workstations. They can run
at up to 640 MB/sec.
To work in an environment such as that of Fig. 1-12, the operating system has
to know what peripheral devices are connected to the computer and configure
them. This requirement led Intel and Microsoft to design a PC system called
plug
and play
, based on a similar concept first implemented in the Apple Macintosh.
Before plug and play, each I/O card had a fixed interrupt request level and fixed ad-
dresses for its I/O registers. For example, the keyboard was interrupt 1 and used
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